Metacognition

Even when individuals with learning disabilities and working memory deficits possess a repertoire of cognitive and memory strategies, they seldom select and apply an effective strategy when the situation warrants its use. One reason this occurs is that these individuals are deficient in metacognition Opens in new window, a prominent aspect of executive processing.

Metacognitive Training: A Working Memory Intervention for Learners

Metacognition has been recognized as the conscious use of executive control processes (Livingston, 2003). It consists of two aspects: (1) self-awareness and (2) self-control or self-regulation.

1. Self-awareness consists of knowledge of one’s skills and cognitive abilities, understanding how one’s skills and abilities match up with task requirements, and knowing which processes and strategies will lead to successful goal attainment.
2. Self-control is comprised of the ability to consciously monitor, manage, control, and evaluate one’s cognitive activities; it also includes strategy selection and usage. For example, recognizing the need for a strategy and selecting an appropriate one are metacognitive acts.

Development of Metacognition

Metacognition begins to develop within the second year of life and appears to enable children to link different representations from memory within present-moment experience.

This capacity probably changes the subjective nature of consciousness and permits children to begin developing new levels of self-regulation.

Metacognition gives the developing minds of children (and adults) the ability to perform a number of unique processes:

• thinking about thinking itself;
• forming a representation of one’s own mind;
• becoming aware of sensations, images, and beliefs about the self; and
• reflecting on the nature of emotion and perception.

For most individuals, metacognition develops naturally, without instruction or intervention. Poorly developed metacognition is often the cause of inefficient executive functioning.

The level of metacognition is highly correlated with success on complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension (Gernsten et al., 2001).

Despite its importance, special efforts to teach metacognition are usually unnecessary, as metacognitive thinking and control are embedded in most cognitive strategies, including working memory Opens in new window strategies.

When they are not, teachers and trainers need only adhere to the general procedure for strategy training to incorporate metacognitive thinking.

Nevertheless, there are times when the awareness component of metacognition and metamemory needs to be addressed prior to the strategy training.

In conclusion, the effective use of working memory resources and strategies significantly depends on metacognition and metamemory Opens in new window.

Key Aspects of Metacognitive Interventions

Interventions designed to improve metacognitive functioning dates back more than 30 years.

Key aspects of metacognitve interventions include teaching the individual:

• to become aware of his or her processing deficits and strengths;
• to select an appropriate strategy for the task at hand;
• to self-monitor progress toward an objective;
• to revise or change strategies when necessary; and
• to self-evaluate.

Isolated metacognitive strategies, such as self-monitoring, can also be taught and typically result in significantly improved metacognitive functioning and cognitive strategy use and performance. Training in self-instruction, which has consistently been supported in the literature, is another form of metacognitive training.

To develop internalization of self-regulatory behavior, three strategies of self-instruction training are involved:

1. the student first learns to verbalize or think aloud;
2. the student then whispers to herself or himself while engaging in self-regulatory behavior; and
3. finally the student talks silently to himself or herself before and during actual task performance.

Self-instruction training is often paired with learning a problem-solving algorithm, such as goal-management training (Levine et al., 2000).

Metacognitive or executive strategy training is often selected even when there is no evidence of a metacognitive or executive processing deficit. This is because higher level strategic thinking permits more effective use of underutilized or impaired processes.

Educators might also select executive strategy training when students fail to spontaneously use or maintain strategies they have learned (Lawson & Rice, 1989).

When executive or metacognitive processing is itself the underdeveloped process, then the intervention should include self-instruction training because self-regulation depends on internal self-talk.